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السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته[/align]*·~-.¸¸,.-~*




[align=center] Englisc has gone through substantial changes to become
The English we used today . This is what called in English
Philology .

Indo-European language was the source of modern languages
In the Indian sub-continent .

For example ;

Ancient Greek Latin Sanskrit
( father ) pater pater pitar
( brother ) phrater frater bhratar

Cognates

A cognate of a word in one language ( e. g. English ) is
A word in another language ( e. g. German ) that has a similar
Form and is or was used with a similar meaning . The word mother , father
And friend are cognates of the German words mutter , vater and
Freund . So modern English and modern German have a common
Ancestor . Also similarities in Spanish ( madre , padre ,
Amigo ) and Italian ( madre , padre , amico ) .

Old English

The primary sources for English language were the Germanic languages
Spoken by a group of tribes from northern Europe who moved
Into the british Isles in the fifth century , these tribes of Angles ,
Saxon and Jutes were described ( Gods wrath toward Britain ) .
This is the cause of the Englisc , come from its two words ( Blending )
We have many basic terms in the language ; menn ( man ), wif
( woman )
Cild ( child ) , hus ( house ) , mete ( food ), etan ( eat ), drincan
( drink ) and feohtan ( fight ) .

From the sixth to the eighth century , Anglo-Saxon were converted to
Christianity and a number of terms from Latin came into English at
That time , For example ; angel , bishop , candle , church , martyr ,
Priest and school , from this period .
From the eighth century through the ninth and tenth centuries , another
Group of northern Europeans came first to plunder and then to settle in parts
Of the coastal regions of Britain . They were the Vikings and it is the from
Their language , Old Norse , that the original forms of give , law , leg ,
Skin , sky , take , and they were adopted .

Middle English
Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French in England ,
Following their victory at Hastings under William the Conqueror in 1066 .
These French-speaking invaders ( attackers ) became the ruling class , so
That the language of the nobility , the government , the law and civilized
Life in England for the next two hundred years was French . It is the source
Of words like army , court , defense , faith , prison and tax .
Yet the language of the peasants remained English . The peasants
Worked on the land and reared sheep , cows and swine ( words from Old
English ) while the upper classes talked about mutton , beef and pork ( words
Of French origin ) .

In the two hundred years , from 1400 to 1600 , that separated Chaucer and
Shakespear , the sounds of English underwent a substantial change known
As the Great vowel sounds ( such as [ o: ] moving up to [ u: ] , as in mona
> moon ) made the pronunciation of Early modern English , beginning around
1500 , significantly different from earlier periods . The introduction of printing
In 1476 brought significant changes , but because the printers tended to standerize
Existing pronounciations in the spilling of words ( e. g. knee , gnaw ) , later
Pronounciation changes are often not reflected in the way modern English
( after 1700 ) is written .

Sound changes

In a number of changes from Middle to Modern English , some sounds simply
Disappeared from the pronounciation of certain words , resulting in the silent
Letters . Word-initial velar stops [ k ] and [ g ] are no longer pronounced before
Nasals [ n ] , but we still write the words knee and gnaw with the remnant of
Earlier pronounciation .

The sound change known as metathesis involves a reversal in position of two
Sounds in a word .

The cowboy pronounces the expression pretty good as close to purty good
Is producing a similar example of metathesis as a dialect . In some
American English dialects , the form aks , as in I aksed him already ,
Can still be heard instead of ask .
Another type of sound changes , known as epenthesis , involves in the
Addition of a sound to the middle of a word .
Amtig = empty
Spinel = spindle
Timr = timber
One other type of sound changes worth nothing , though not found
In English , It involves the addition of a sound to the beginning of
A word called prothesis . It is a common feature in the evolution of
Some forms from Latin to Spanish , as in these examples .

Schola = escuela ( school )
Spiritus = espiritu ( spirit )

Spanish speakers who are starting to learn English as a second language
Will often put a prothetic vowel at the beginning of some English
Words , with the result that words like strange and story may sound
Like ( estrange ) and ( estory ) .

Syntactic changes

Some noticeable differences between the structures in Old and Modern
English involve word order , In Old English texts , we find the Subject-
Verb-Object order most common in modern English , but we can also find
A number of different orders that are no longer used . For example , the
Subject could follow the verb , as in ferde he ( He traveled ), and the object
Could be placed before the verb , as in he hine geseah ( He saw him ).
Or at the beginning of the sentence , as in him man ne sealed ( no man
Gave [ any ] to him ) .
In the last example , the use of the negative also differs from the Modern
English , since the sequence * not gave ( no sealed ) is no longer
Grammatical . A double negative construction was also possible , as in
The following example, where both ne ( not ) and nafre ( never ) are
Used with the same verb . We would now say you never gave rather than
* You not gave never .

And ne sealdest pu me nafre an ticcen
And not gave you me never a kid

However , the most sweeping change in the form of English sentences
Was the loss of a large number of inflectional affixes from many parts of
Speech . Notice that , in the previous example , the forms sealed ( he gave )
And sealdest ( you gave ) are differentiated by inflectional suffixes ( -e , -est )
That are no longer used in Modern English . Nouns , Adj. articles and pronouns
All had different inflectional form according to their grammatical function .

Semantic changes

The most obvious way in which Modern English differs from Old English
Is in the number of borrowed words that have come into the language since
The Old English period . less obviously , many words have ceased to be used
Since we no longer carry swords (most of us, at least ), the word foin ( the
Thrust of a sword ) , is no longer heard . A common Old English word for
" man " was were , but it has fallen out of use , except in horror films where the
Compound werewolf occasionally appears . A number of expressions such as lo ,
Verily or egad are immediately recognized as belonging to a much earlier period
Along with certain medieval-sounding names such as Bertha , Egbert and
Percival .
Two other processes are described as ( broadening and narrowing ) of
Meaning . An example of broadening of meaning is the change from
Holy day as a religious feast to the very general break from work called
A holiday . We have broadened the use of foda ( fodder of animal ) to
Talk about all kinds of food .
Another example is the modern use of the word dog . We use it very generally
To refer to all breeds, but in its older form ( Old English docga ), it was only
Used for one particular breed .
The reverse process, called narrowing has overtaken the Old English word
Hund, once used for any kind of dog, but now, as hound, used only for some
Specific breeds . Another example is mete, once used for any kind of food,
Which has in its modern form meat restricted to only some specific
Types . The Old English version of the word wife could be used to refer
To any woman, but has narrowed in its application nowadays to only married
Women . A different kind of narrowing can lead to a negative meaning
For some words, such as vulgar ( which used to many simply ordinary )
And naughty ( which used to mean worth nothing ).

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[align=center]Source : The study of Language
George Yule
Third Edition[/align]

[فهد سعود الزهراني]

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it is new information about history of english language for me

[m7bcom]

Thank your

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[أح ــمد ع ــبدالله]

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